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計算機系統(tǒng)概論（英文版·原書第3版） 
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本書的目的是讓學生在一進入大學校門的時候，就對計算機科學有一個深入理解，為以后的課程打下堅實的基礎。本書包括兩方面的內容：計算機底層結構；高級語言編程及編程方法學。為加深學生對編程及其方法學的理解。本書采用了自底向上方法，即先給學生一個整體結構，然后自底向上地建立起相關的知識。在每個學習階段，都基于之前已學的知識介紹新的概念。經(jīng)驗告訴我們，這種學習方法更多地強調理解而不是記憶。通過本書的學習，學生的理解能力將獲得很大的提高，因為他們循序漸進地了解了構建計算機的全部過程。
Preface iv
1 Welcome Aboard 1 1.1 What We Will Tryto Do 1 1.2 How We Will Get There 1 1.3 Two Recurring Themes 3 1.3.1 The Notion of Abstraction 3 1.3.2 Hardware vs. Software 5 1.4 A Computer System 7 1.4.1 A (Very) Little History for a(Lot) Better Perspective 8 1.4.2 The Parts of a Computer System 10 1.5 Two Very Important Ideas 11 1.6 Computersas Universal Computational Devices 12 1.7 How Do We Getthe Electrons to Do the Work? 14 1.7.1 The Statement of the Problem 14 1.7.2 The Algorithm 16 1.7.3 The Program 16 1.7.4 The ISA 17 1.7.5 The Microarchitecture 18 1.7.6 The Logic Circuit 19 1.7.7 The Devices 19 Exercises 20 2 Bits, Data Types, and Operations 25 2.1 Bits and Data Types 25 2.1.1 The Bitas the Unit of Information 25 2.1.2 Data Types 26 2.2 Integer Data Types 26 2.2.1 Unsigned Integers 26 2.2.2 Signed Integers 27 2.3 2’s Complement Integers 29 2.4 Conversion Between Binary and Decimal 31 2.4.1 Binary to Decimal Conversion 31 2.4.2 Decimal to Binary Conversion 32 2.4.3 Extending Conversion to Numbers with Fractional Parts 33 2.5 Operations on Bits—Part I: Arithmetic 34 2.5.1 Addition and Subtraction 34 2.5.2 Sign-Extension 36 2.5.3 Overflow 36 2.6 Operations on Bits—Part II:Logical Operations 38 2.6.1 ALogical Variable 38 2.6.2 The AND Function 38 2.6.3 The OR Function 39 2.6.4 The NOT Function 40 2.6.5 The Exclusive-OR Function 40 2.6.6 De Morgan’s Laws 41 2.6.7 The Bit Vector 42 2.7 Other Representations 43 2.7.1 Floating Point Data Type (Greater Range, Less Precision) 43 2.7.2 ASCII Codes 47 2.7.3 Hexadecimal Notation 48 Exercises 49 3 Digital Logic Structures 59 3.1 The Transistor 59 3.2 Logic Gates 61 3.2.1 The NOT Gate (Inverter) 61 3.2.2 OR and NOR Gates 62 3.2.3 Why We Can’t Simply Connect P-Type to Ground 64 3.2.4 AND and NAND Gates 65 3.2.5 Gates with More Than Two Inputs 66 3.3 Combinational Logic Circuits 67 3.3.1 Decoder 67 3.3.2 Mux 68 3.3.3 A One-Bit Adder (a.k.a.a Full Adder) 69 3.3.4 The Programmable Logic Array(PLA)71 3.3.5 Logical Completeness 72 3.4 Basic Storage Elements 73 3.4.1 The R-S Latch 73 3.4.2 The Gated D Latch 74 3.5 The Concept of Memory 75 3.5.1 Address Space 75 3.5.2 Addressability 76 3.5.3 A22-by-3-Bit Memory 76 3.6 Sequential Logic Circuits 78 3.6.1 A Simple Example: The Combination Lock 79 3.6.2 The Concept of State 80 3.6.3 The Finite State Machine and Its State Diagram 82 3.6.4 The Synchronous Finite State Machine 85 3.6.5 The Clock 86 3.6.6 Example: A Danger Sign 87 3.7 Preview of Coming Attractions: The Data Path of the LC-3 93 Exercises 95 4 The von Neumann Model 121 4.1 Basic Components 121 4.1.1 Memory 122 4.1.2 Processing Unit123 4.1.3 Inputand Output 124 4.1.4 Control Unit 125 4.2 The LC-3: An Examplevon Neumann Machine 125 4.3 Instruction Processing 127 4.3.1 The Instruction 127 4.3.2 The Instruction Cycle (NOT the Clock Cycle!) 130 4.3.3 Changing the Sequence of Execution 132 4.3.4 Control of the Instruction Cycle 134 4.3.5 Halting the Computer (the TRAP Instruction) 136 4.4 Our First Program: A Multiplication Algorithm 137 Exercises 139 5 The LC-3 145 5.1 The ISA: Overview 145 5.1.1 Memory Organization 146 5.1.2 Registers 146 5.1.3 The Instruction Set147 5.1.4 Opcodes 149 5.1.5 Data Types 149 5.1.6 Addressing Modes 150 5.1.7 Condition Codes 150 5.2 Operate Instructions 151 5.2.1 ADD, AND, and NOT 151 5.2.2 Immediates 152 5.2.3 The LEA Instruction (Although Not Really an Operate) 154 5.3 Data Movement Instructions 155 5.3.1 PC-Relative Mode 156 5.3.2 Indirect Mode158 5.3.3 Base+offset Mode 159 5.3.4 An Example 160 5.4 Control Instructions 161 5.4.1 Conditional Branches162 5.4.2 Two Methods of Loop Control165 5.4.3 The JMP Instruction 169 5.4.4 The TRAP Instruction 169 5.5 Another Example: Counting Occurrences of a Character 170 5.6 The Data Path Revisited 173 5.6.1 Basic Components of the Data Path 175 5.6.2 The Instruction Cycle Specificto the LC-3 176 Exercises 177 6 Programming 203 6.1 Problem Solving 203 6.1.1 Systematic Decomposition 203 6.1.2 The Three Constructs: Sequential, Conditional, Iterative 204 6.1.3 LC-3 Control Instructions to Implement the Three Constructs 205 6.1.4 The Character Count Example from Chapter5, Revisited 206 6.2 Debugging 210 6.2.1 Debugging Operations 211 6.2.2 Use of an Interactive Debugger 212 Exercises 220 7 Assembly Language 231 7.1 Assembly Language Programming—Moving UpaLevel 231 7.2 An Assembly Language Program 232 7.2.1 Instructions 233 7.2.2 Pseudo-Ops (Assembler Directives) 236 7.2.3 Example: The Character Count Example of Section5.5, Revisited Again! 238 7.3 The Assembly Process 240 7.3.1 Introduction 240 7.3.2 A Two-Pass Process 240 7.3.3 The First Pass: Creating the Symbol Table 241 7.3.4 The Second Pass: Generating the Machine Language Program 242 7.4 Beyond the Assembly of a Single Assembly Language Program 243 7.4.1 The Executable Image 244 7.4.2 More than One Object File 244 Exercises 245 8 DataStructures 263 8.1 Subroutines 263 8.1.1 The Call/Return Mechanism 265 8.1.2 JSR(R)—The Instruction That Callsthe Subroutine 266 8.1.3 Saving and Restoring Registers 267 8.1.4 Library Routines 269 8.2 The Stack 273 8.2.1 The Stack—An Abstract Data Type 273 8.2.2 Two Example Implementations 273 8.2.3 Implementation in Memory 274 8.2.4 The Complete Picture 278 8.3 Recursion, a Powerful Technique When Used Appropriately 280 8.3.1 Bad Example Number 1: Factorial 280 8.3.2 Fibonacci, an Even Worse Example 285 8.3.3 The Maze, a Good Example 288 8.4 The Queue 294 8.4.1 The Basic Operations: Remove from Front, Insertat Rear 295 8.4.2 Wrap-Around 295 8.4.3 How Many Elements Can We Storeina Queue? 296 8.4.4 Tests for Underflow, Overflow 297 8.4.5 The Complete Story 298 8.5 Character Strings 300 Exercises 304 9 I/O 313 9.1 Privilege, Priority, and the Memory Address Space 314 9.1.1 Privilege and Priority 314 9.1.2 Organization of Memory 316 9.2 Input/Output 317 9.2.1 Some Basic Characteristics of I/O 317 9.2.2 Input from the Keyboard 320 9.2.3 Output to the Monitor 322 9.2.4 A More Sophisticated Input Routine 325 9.2.5 Implementation of Memory-Mapped I/O, Revisited 326 9.3 Operating System Service Routines(LC-3 Trap Routines)327 9.3.1 Introduction 327 9.3.2 The Trap Mechanism 329 9.3.3 The TRAP Instruction 330 9.3.4 The RTI Instruction: To Return Controlto the Calling Program 331 9.3.5 A Summary of the Trap Service Routine Process 331 9.3.6 Trap Routines for Handling I/O 333 9.3.7 A Trap Routine for Halting the Computer 335 9.3.8 The Trap Routine for Character Input(One Last Time)336 9.3.9 PUTS: Writinga Character String to the Monitor 338 9.4 Interrupts and Interrupt-Driven I/O 339 9.4.1 What Is Interrupt-Driven I/O? 339 9.4.2 Why Have Interrupt-Driven I/O? 340 9.4.3 Two Parts to the Process 341 9.4.4 Part I:Causing the Interrupt to Occur 341 9.4.5 Part II: Handling the Interrupt Request 344 9.4.6 An Example 347 9.4.7 Not Just I/O Devices 349 9.5 Polling Revisited, Now That We Know About Interrupts 350 9.5.1 The Problem 350 9.5.2 The Solution 351 Exercises 352 10 A Calculator 379 10.1 Data Type Conversion 380 10.1.1 Example: A Bogus Program: 2+3=e 381 10.1.2 Input Data(ASCII to Binary) 381 10.1.3 Display Result(Binary to ASCII) 385 10.2 Arithmetic Usinga Stack 387 10.2.1 The Stackas Temporary Storage 387 10.2.2 An Example 388 10.2.3 OpAdd, OpMult, and OpNeg 389 10.3 The Calculator 395 10.3.1 Functionality 395 10.3.2 Code 396 Exercises 402 11 Introduction to C/C++ Programming 405 11.1 Our Objective 405 11.2 Bridging the Gap 406 11.3 Translating High-Level Language Programs 410 11.3.1 Interpretation 410 11.3.2 Compilation 411 11.3.3 Pros and Cons 411 11.4 The C/C++ Programming Languages 411 11.4.1 The Origins of C and C++ 411 11.4.2 How We Will Approach C and C++ 412 11.4.3 The Compilation Process 413 11.4.4 Software Development Environments 415 11.5 A Simple Examplein C 415 11.5.1 The Functionmain 415 11.5.2 Formatting, Comments, and Style 417 11.5.3 The C Preprocessor 418 11.5.4 Input and Output 419 11.6 Summary 422 Exercises 422 12 Variables and Operators 425 12.1 Introduction 425 12.2 Variables 425 12.2.1 Four Basic Data Types 426 12.2.2 Choosing Identifiers 429 12.2.3 Scope: Localvs. Global 429 12.2.4 More Examples 431 12.3 Operators 432 12.3.1 Expressions and Statements 433 12.3.2 The Assignment Operator 433 12.3.3 Arithmetic Operators 434 12.3.4 Order of Evaluation 435 12.3.5 Bitwise Operators 436 12.3.6 Relational Operators 437 12.3.7 Logical Operators 438 12.3.8 Increment/Decrement Operators 439 12.3.9 Expressions with Multiple Operators 441 12.4 Problem Solving Using Operators 441 12.5 Tying It All Together 444 12.5.1 Symbol Table 444 12.5.2 Allocating Space for Variables 445 12.5.3 A Comprehensive Example447 12.6 Additional Topics 449 12.6.1 Variations of the Basic Types 450 12.6.2 Literals, Constants, and Symbolic Values 451 12.6.3 Additional C Operators 452 12.7 Summary 453 Exercises 453 13 Control Structures 457 13.1 Introduction 457 13.2 Conditional Constructs 457 13.2.1 The if Statement 458 13.2.2 Theif-else Statement 460 13.3 Iteration Constructs 464 13.3.1 The while Statement 464 13.3.2 The for Statement 466 13.3.3 Thedo-while Statement 471 13.4 Problem Solving Using Control Structures 472 13.4.1 Problem 1: Approximating the Value of π 472 13.4.2 Problem 2: Finding Prime Numbers Less Than 100 474 13.4.3 Problem 3: Analyzing an E-mail Address 477 13.5 Additional C Control Structures 480 13.5.1 The switch Statement 480 13.5.2 The break and continue Statements 482 13.5.3 An Example: Simple Calculator 482 13.6 Summary 484 Exercises 484 14 Functions 491 14.1 Introduction 491 14.2 Functionsin C 492 14.2.1 A Function with a Parameter 492 14.2.2 Example: Area of a Ring 495 14.3 Implementing Functions in C 497 14.3.1 Run-Time Stack 497 14.3.2 Getting It All to Work 500 14.3.3 Tying It All Together 505 14.4 Problem Solving Using Functions 507 14.4.1 Problem 1: Case Conversion 507 14.4.2 Problem 2: Pythagorean Triples 508 14.5 Summary 510 Exercises 511 15 Testing and Debugging 517 15.1 Introduction 517 15.2 Types of Errors 518 15.2.1 Syntactic Errors 519 15.2.2 Semantic Errors 519 15.2.3 Algorithmic Errors 521 15.2.4 Specification Errors 522 15.3 Testing 523 15.3.1 Black-Box Testing 524 15.3.2 White-Box Testing 524 15.4 Debugging 525 15.4.1 Ad Hoc Techniques 526 15.4.2 Source-Level Debuggers 526 15.5 Programming for Correctness 528 15.5.1 Nailing Downthe Specifications 529 15.5.2 Modular Design 529 15.5.3 Defensive Programming 530 15.6 Summary 531 Exercises 532 16 Pointers and Arrays 537 16.1 Introduction 537 16.2 Pointers 537 16.2.1 Declaring Pointer Variables 539 16.2.2 Pointer Operators 540 16.2.3 Passinga Reference Using Pointers 541 16.2.4 Null Pointers 543 16.2.5 Demystifying the Syntax 543 16.2.6 An Example Problem Involving Pointers 544 16.3 Arrays 545 16.3.1 Declaring and Using Arrays 546 16.3.2 Examples Using Arrays 547 16.3.3 Arraysas Parameters 550 16.3.4 Stringsin C 552 16.3.5 The Relationship Between Arrays and Pointersin C 554 16.3.6 Problem Solving: Insertion Sort 556 16.3.7 Common Pitfalls with Arrays in C 559 16.3.8 Variable-Length Arrays 559 16.3.9 Multidimensional Arrays in C 561 16.4 Summary 563 Exercises 563 17 Recursion 569 17.1 Introduction 569 17.2 What Is Recursion? 570 17.3 Recursion vs. Iteration 57 117.4 Towers of Hanoi 572 17.5 Fibonacci Numbers 576 17.6 Binary Search 581 17.7 Escapinga Maze 583 17.8 Summary 586 Exercises 587 18 I/Oin C 593 18.1 Introduction 593 18.2 The C Standard Library 593 18.3 I/O, One Character at a Time 594 18.3.1 I/O Streams 594 18.3.2 putchar 595 18.3.3 getchar 595 18.3.4 Buffered I/O 595 18.4 Formatted I/O 597 18.4.1 printf 597 18.4.2 scanf 599 18.4.3 Variable Argument Lists 601 18.5 I/O from Files 602 18.6 Summary 605 Exercises 605 19 Dynamic Data Structuresin C 607 19.1 Introduction 607 19.2 Structures 608 19.2.1 typedef 610 19.2.2 Implementing Structuresin C 611 19.3 Arrays of Structures 611 19.4 Dynamic Memory Allocation 614 19.4.1 Dynamically Sized Arrays 616 19.5 Linked Lists 618 19.5.1 Support Functions 620 19.5.2 Addinga Node to a Linked List 622 19.5.3 Deleting Node from a Linked List 625 19.5.4 Arrays vs. Linked Lists 626 19.6 Summary 628 Exercises 629 20 Introduction to C++ 633 20.1 Essential C++ 633 20.2 Going from C to C++ 634 20.2.1 Compiling C++ Code 634 20.2.2 Namespaces 636 20.2.3 Input and Output 636 20.2.4 Pass by Reference 637 20.2.5 Function Overloading 638 20.2.6 Dynamic Allocation 639 20.2.7 Compilation to Machine Version 639 20.3 Classes 639 20.3.1 Methods 640 20.3.2 Access Specifiers 642 20.3.3 Constructors 644 20.3.4 Advanced Topics 645 20.4 Containers and Templates 647 20.4.1 Vectors 647 20.4.2 Templates 649 20.5 Summary 649 Exercises 650 A The LC-3 ISA 653 A.1 Overview 653 A.2 The Instruction Set 655 A.3 Interrupt and Exception Processing 675 A.3.1 Interrupts 676 A.3.2 Exceptions 676 B From LC-3 to x86 679 B.1 LC-3 Features and Corresponding x86 Features 680 B.1.1 Instruction Set 680 B.1.2 Memory 685 B.1.3 Internal State 687 B.2 The Formatand Specification of x86 Instructions 690 B.2.1 Prefix 691 B.2.2 Opcode 691 B.2.3 Mod R/M Byte 692 B.2.4 SIB Byte 693 B.2.5 Displacement 693 B.2.6 Immediate 693 B.3 AnExample 695 C The Microarchitecture of the LC-3 699 C.1 Overview 699 C.2 The State Machine 701 C.3 The Data Path 703 C.4 The Control Structure 706 C.5 The TRAP Instruction 710 C.6 Memory-Mapped I/O7 11 C.7 Interrupt and Exception Control 712 C.7.1 Initiating an Interrupt 714 C.7.2 Returning from an Interruptor Trap Service Routine, RTI 717 C.7.3 Initiating an Exception 717 C.8 Control Store 719 D The C Programming Language 721 D.1 Overview 721 D.2 C Conventions 721 D.2.1 Source Files 721 D.2.2 Header Files 721 D.2.3 Comments 722 D.2.4 Literals 722 D.2.5 Formatting 724 D.2.6 Keywords 724 D.3 Types 725 D.3.1 Basic Data Types 725 D.3.2 Type Qualifiers 726 D.3.3 Storage Class 728 D.3.4 Derived Types 728 D.3.5 typedef 731 D.4 Declarations 731 D.4.1 Variable Declarations 731 D.4.2 Function Declarations 732 D.5 Operators 733 D.5.1 Assignment Operators 733 D.5.2 Arithmetic Operators 734 D.5.3 Bit-Wise Operators 734 D.5.4 Logical Operators 735 D.5.5 Relationa lOperators 735 D.5.6 Increment/Decrement Operators 736 D.5.7 Conditional Expression Operators 736 D.5.8 Pointer, Array, and Structure Operators 737 D.5.9 size of 738 D.5.10 Order of Evaluation 738 D.5.11 Type Conversions 739 D.6 Expressions and Statements 740 D.6.1 Expressions 740 D.6.2 Statements 740 D.7 Control 741 D.7.1 If 741 D.7.2 If-else 741 D.7.3 Switch 742 D.7.4 While 743 D.7.5 For 743 D.7.6 Do-while 744 D.7.7 Break 744 D.7.8 continue 745 D.7.9 return 745 D.8 The CPreprocessor 746 D.8.1 Macro Substitution 746 D.8.2 FileInclusion 747 D.9 Some Standard Library Functions 747 D.9.1 I/O Functions 747 D.9.2 String Functions 749 D.9.3 Math Functions 750 D.9.4 Utility Functions 750 E Useful Tables 753 E.1 Commonly Used Numerical Prefixes 753 E.2 Standard ASCII codes 754 E.3 Powers of 2 755 F Solutions to Selected Exercises 757
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