目錄
綜述與建議1
0.1核電廠和燃料循環(huán)設(shè)施正常運行期間的環(huán)境影響1
0.1.1核能對全球環(huán)境的影響1
0.1.2核能對當(dāng)?shù)丨h(huán)境的影響2
0.2核電廠及核燃料循環(huán)設(shè)施在事故情況下的影響3
0.3放射性廢物管理的影響4
0.4利用核與輻射安全、安保措施來降低環(huán)境影響5
第1章引言6
1.1能源需求趨勢6
1.2脫碳承諾，以及不同發(fā)電能源C02排放情況8
1.3環(huán)境保護要求核能可持續(xù)發(fā)展8
1.4本報告內(nèi)容和結(jié)構(gòu)10
第2章核電廠和核燃料循環(huán)設(shè)施正常運行期間的環(huán)境影響11
2.1如何衡量核能的環(huán)境影響12
2.1.1核能對環(huán)境的主要影響12
2.1.2環(huán)境釋放13
2.1.3評價13
2.1.4方法14
2.2核能的流出物、輻射影響及解決方案14
2.2.1核電廠的流出物及輻射影響14
2.2.2核燃料循環(huán)的流出物及輻射影響17
2.2.3輻射監(jiān)測和監(jiān)控19
2.2.4電離輻射的生物效應(yīng)20
2.2.5放射性物質(zhì)的運輸20
2.2.6利益相關(guān)方參與21
2.3核能發(fā)電與其他能源發(fā)電的環(huán)境影響比較22
2.3.1土地占用23
2.3.2建造材料24
2.3.3取水和用水25
2.3.4常規(guī)退役廢物28
2.3.5關(guān)鍵材料28
2.4新技賴望28
2.4.1減少燃燒燃料的碳排放29
2.4.2嬗變技術(shù)30
2.4.3其他先進技術(shù)32
2.5結(jié)論32
附錄2-1關(guān)于中國的具體情況34
附錄2-2核廠址周圍大型流行病學(xué)調(diào)查（案例與結(jié)果）36
第3章乏燃料和放射性廢物管理38
3.1放射性廢物管理的原則、策略和框架39
3.1.1放射性廢物管理原則39
3.1.2放射性廢物管理策略40
3.1.3放射性廢物管理框架42
3.2放射性廢物的特性和分類44
3.2.1乏燃料和/或后處理放射性廢物44
3.2.2放射性廢物的特性45
3.2.3放射性廢物的分類47
3.3放射性廢物處理和流出物排放48
3.3.1放射性廢物最小化48
3.3.2流出物排放49
3.4放射性廢物處置50
3.4.1極低放廢物（VLLW)50
3.4.2短壽命低中放廢物（LIL-SLW)51
3.4.3長壽命低放廢物（LL-LLW)52
3.4.4長壽命中放廢物（IL-LLW)和高放廢物（HLW)52
3.4.5鈾燃料循環(huán)（鈾礦開采）前端產(chǎn)生的僅含有天然放射性核素的放射性廢物55
3.5開式/閉式核燃料循環(huán)產(chǎn)生的廢物56
3.6新技術(shù)57
3.7結(jié)論58
附錄3放射性廢物處置設(shè)施59
A3.1法國59
A3.2中國60
第4章嚴(yán)重核事故62
4.1核電廠嚴(yán)重事故63
4.1.1三里島核電廠事故63
4.1.2切爾諾貝利核電廠事故64
4.1.3福島第一核電廠事故66
4.2為降低事故環(huán)境影響采取的改進措施68
4.2.1反應(yīng)堆技術(shù)提升68
4.2.2核電廠在福島第一核電廠事故后的行動69
4.2.3嚴(yán)重事故管理70
4.2.4對于未來類似嚴(yán)重事故的見解72
4.3結(jié)論73
附錄4-1第三代壓水堆嚴(yán)重事故專用預(yù)防和緩解措施74
附錄4-2中國內(nèi)陸核電廠的安全性75
附錄4-3中國嚴(yán)重事故后應(yīng)急組織管理76
A4-3.1中國的三級核應(yīng)急體系77
A4-3.2核應(yīng)急監(jiān)測體系77
第5章核安全與環(huán)境79
5.1核電廠的安全性及其環(huán)境影響80
5.1.1嚴(yán)重事故及其后果81
5.1.2風(fēng)險指引的縱深防御體系82
5.1.3新的安全威脅因素84
5.2核電廠選址85
5.3安全責(zé)任及政府職責(zé)86
5.3.1運營單位的主要責(zé)任86
5.3.2政府和監(jiān)管機構(gòu)的職責(zé)和作用87
5.4核安全與公眾接受度87
5.5結(jié)論88
附錄5-1核安全監(jiān)管體系89
附錄5-2中國采取的行動90
第6章結(jié)論92
參考文獻96
詞匯表101
后記106
Contents
Synthesis and recommendations 108
0.1 Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities under normal operation 109
0.1.1 Nuclear energy and global impacts on the environment 109
0.1.2 Nuclear energy and local impacts on the environment 109
0.2 Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities in accidental situations Ill
0.3 Impacts from radwaste management 112
0.4 Nuclear and radiation safety/security as a tool to prevent impacts on the environment 113
Chapter 1 Introduction 115
1.1 Trends in energy demand 115
1.2 Decarbonization commitment and CO2 emissions by various energy options 117
1.3 Environmental protection as a requirement to make nuclear energy sustainable 119
1.4 Report contents and organization 120
Chapter 2 Environmental impacts during normal operations of nuclear power plants and nuclear fuel cycle facilities 122
2.1 How to measure impacts of nuclear energy on the environment 123
2.1.1 Main impacts of nuclear energy to the environment 123
2.1.2 Releases to the environment 124
2.1.3 Assessments 125
2.1.4 Methodology 126
2.2 Effluents，radiological impacts of nuclear energy and solutions 126
2.2.1 Effluents and radiological impacts of NPPs 126
2.2.2 Effluents and radiological impacts of nuclear fuel cycle 129
2.2.3 Radiation monitoring and surveillance 131
2.2.4 Biological effect of ionizing radiation 132
2.2.5 Transportation of radioactive materials 133
2.2.6 Participation of stakeholders 134
2.3 Environmental impacts of nuclear energy compared to other sources of electricity .135
2.3.1 Land occupation 137
2.3.2 Materials used for construction 138
2.3.3 Water withdrawal and consumption 139
2.3.4 Conventional waste from decommissioning 143
2.3.5 Critical materials 144
2.4 New technology perspectives 144
2.4.1 Reducing Carbon emissions of burnt fuels 144
2.4.2 Transmutation technologies 145
2.4.3 Other advanced technologies 148
2.5 Conclusions 149
Appendix 2-1 More specific considerations about the Chinese situation 151
Appendix 2-2 Large scale epidemiological studies around nuclear sites (cases and results) 153
Chapter 3 Spent fuel and radwaste management 157
3.1 Principles, strategies and framework of radwaste management to prevent environmental impacts 159
3.1.1 Principles of radwaste management 159
3.1.2 Strategies of radwaste management 159
3.1.3 Frameworks of radwaste management with respect to the environment 163
3.2 Specific characteristics and classification of radwaste 166
3.2.1 Spent fuel or reprocessing rad waste 166
3.2.2 Specific characteristics of radwaste versus the environment 168
3.2.3 Classification of radwaste versus the environment 170
3.3 Processing and discharge of radwaste 172
3.3.1 Minimization of radwaste 172
3.3.2 Discharge of effluents 174
3.4 Disposal of radwaste 174
3.4.1 Very low-level waste (VLLW) 174
3.4.2 Low and intermediate level-short lived waste (LIL-SLW) 175
3.4.3 Low level-long lived waste (LL-LLW) 177
3.4.4 Intermediate level-long lived waste (IL-LLW) and high level waste (HLW) 178
3.4.5 Radioactive waste containing only natural radionuclides from the front-end of uranium fuel cycle (uranium mining) 181
3.5 Open/closed nuclear fuel cycle 184
3.6 New technologies 185
3.7 Conclusions 186
Appendix 3 188
A3.1 French side 188
A3.2 Chinese side 189
Chapter 4 Severe nuclear accidents 191
4.1 Severe accidents 192
4.1.1 Three Mile Island accident 193
4.1.2 Chernobyl accident 195
4.1.3 Fukushima Daiichi accident 197
4.2 Improvements to make nuclear energy free of environmental impacts in case of accident 200
4.2.1 Improvements in reactor technologies 200
4.2.2 NPP action after Fukushima Daiichi accident 202
4.2.3 Severe accident management 203
4.2.4 Insights on similar severe accidents in future 206
4.3 Conclusions 207
Appendix 4-1 Dedicated prevention and mitigation measures for severe accidents of Gen-JH NPPs 208
Appendix 4-2 Safety of inland NPP in China 210
Appendix 4-3 Emergency management after severe accidents in China 212
A4-3.1 Three level nuclear emergency system in China 213
M-3.2 Nuclear emergency monitoring system 214
Chapter 5 Nuclear safety and the environment 216
5.1 The safety of nuclear power plants and their environmental impact 218
5.1.1 Severe accidents and their external consequences 218
5.1.2 Risk-informed defence in depth 221
5.1.3 New safety threats 223
5.2 NPPs sitings 224
5.3 Responsibility for safety and role of the government 226
5.3.1 The prime responsibility of the operator 226
5.3.2 The role of the government and the regulator 228
5.4 Nuclear safety, and public understanding 229
5.5 Conclusions 230
Appendix 5-1 Nuclear safety regulation system 231
Appendix 5-2 Actions taken in China 232
Chapter 6 Conclusions 235
References 240
Glossary 245
Postscript 250